Social 4

Because European cities were congested, dirty, unhealthy, infectious diseases spread quickly. People in cities
were more likely to die than in rural areas, and more people died in cities than were born but were able to holdtheir population by people emigrating from the countryside .. There was also pervasive poverty, no urban transportation,and lack of medical knowledge . The steam engine allowed industrialists to move away from streams and riversand to move to areas with better shipping facilities and better supplies of coal and raw materials, the cities ..There were many people to work in the factories as well as other factories for easy transportation of materials.. ,Populations increased up to tenfold during the nineteenth century in some areas .. In cities, every bit of land was putto use, with houses lined up next to each other and no parks or open areas. Many people lived in small, overcrowdedcellars or attics .. These were extremely unsanitary and unhealthy conditions. Open drains and sewers flowed alongside or down the middle of streets. Sewers often filled with garbage and excrement, and toilet facilities were very primitive. There filled up quickly, often overflowed, and seeped into dwellings. The smell of excrement in the air was horrid. By the 1840s, a city reform movement began. With more and more people and the lack of public transportation, people had to live in walking distance to shops and factories. The British government also was slow to provide sanitary facilities and establish adequate building codes. This problem manifested itself on the continent later. Housing also was no a high priority.
2. Edwin Chadwick was a famous reformer who was charged with the administration of relief to paupers under the Poor Law of 1834. He was a Benthamite, one who beliefs that public problems ought to be dealt with on a rational, scientific basis and according to the greatest good. He used this view to rationalize that disease and death caused poverty because a sick worker was unemployed and orphaned children were poor children. Also, he believed that disease could be prevented by cleaning up the urban environment. Chadwick's detailed reports from local Poor Law officials proved that disease was related to filthy environmental condition, which were caused by lack of drainage, sewers, and garbage collection. Chadwick believed that excrement of outhouses could be washed away by water through sewers at 5% the cost of removing it by hand. Iron pipes and tile drains, made cheap by industrialization, would be used for running water and sewerage for all of town. In 1848, with the help of the cholera epidemic of 1846, Great Britain adapted Chadwick's report, created a national health board, and gave cities great authority to build modern sanitary systems. The health movement gained support in the United States, France, and Germany after the 1840s, when government began to accept limited responsibility for the health of all citizens. By the 1860s and 1870s, European cities were making progress toward adequate water supplies and sewerage systems.
3. Early reformers were restricted by the miasmatic theory of disease, stating that people contracted disease when they breathe the odors of decay and excrement. It came from observing how removing filth improved health. However, in the 1840s and 1850s, doctors and health officials observed that bad drinking water was responsible for transmitting disease and that contagion was spread through filth and not caused by it. Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease when he was studying fermentation in 1854. He discovered that fermentation depended on the growth of living organisms and that the activity of these organisms could be stopped by heating the beverage, or pasteurizing it. He realized that specific diseases were caused by germs and that those organisms could be controlled in people and in beer, wine, and milk. In the mid 1870s, German doctor Robert,Koch and his coworkers developed open pure cultures of harmful bacteria and described their life cycles. This caused, over the next twenty year, for researchers, mostly Germans, to identify the organisms responsible for diseases, leading to many vaccines . English surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865 connected aerial bacteria and wound infections together and reasoned that a chemical disinfect applied to a wound dressing would destroy the floating particles' life. In the 1880s, German surgeons developed the practice of sterilizing everything in the operating room.
4. Urban planning is when city developers build cities that aren't overcrowded, have bad housing, or lack transportation. After declining in the early 1800s, it was revived and enhancing after 1850. Napoleon III believed that rebuilding much of Paris would provide employment, improve living conditions, and show the power and glory of his empire. The baron Georges Haussmann bulldozed ,buildlng and opposition and transformed Paris. Paris in 1850 had narrow, dark streets and was greatly overcrowded:'There were slums and very high death rates. There were few open spaces, only two public parks, and very limited public transportation. Haussmann and his planners razed old buildings to cut broad, straight boulevards through the center of the city and in new quarters on the outskirts. It was done to prevent easy construction and defense of barricades by mobs. They destroyed slums and stimulated the construction of better housing. Small parks and open spaces were created, and two very large parks on the opposite sides of town were developed. The city improved its sewers and developed a system of aqueducts. The new boulevards beautified Paris and provided an example for Europe after 1870. Public authorities developed better water supply and waste disposal at the same time as boulevards. Some cities destroyed their old walled fortifications for boulevards and office buildings, town halls, theaters, opera houses, and museums. In the 1870s, many European
cities allowed horse-drawn streetcars to carry rides through streets. In the 1890s, they then adopted the
electric streetcar. They were cheaper, faster, more dependable, and more comfortable than horse-drawn ones, and carried 6.7 billion rides by 1910. Every person was using public transportation four times as often in 1910 as in 1886. The new boulevards and horse-drawn streetcars had encouraged the middle class to have better housing in the 1860s and 1870s, and after 1890, electric streetcars gave the middle class access to new, improved housing.
1. The real wages of British workers, which had risen by 1850, almost doubled from that to 1906, with the continent experiencing the same effect later. However, hardship and poverty were not eliminated, and the bottom 30% of households received 10% or less of all income. The richest 5% of all households in the population received 33% of all national income. There were lighter or nonexistent income taxes on the wealthy. The gap between the rich and poor remained the same, or got worse, during the Industrial Revolution. This was because industrial and urban development made society more diverse and less unified. Economic specialization made new social groups or subclasses.
2. In the upper middle class, there were successful business families from banking, industry, and large-scale commerce, benefited by modern industry and scientific progress. They became drawn toward the social prestige of the aristocratic lifestyle after 1848. The upper middle class purchased country places or built beach houses for weekend and summer use. The number of servants and private coaches and carriages was an important indicator of wealth and standing. The landed aristocracy mingled with the upper middle class and traded titles, country homes, and elegance for cash through marriages. Below the upper middle class were the much larger, less wealthy, and diversified middle-class groups. In the middle middle class, there were moderately successful industrialists and merchants as well as professionals in law and medicine. The lower middle class was made of independent shopkeepers, small traders, and tiny manufacturers.
3. After 1848, there was a growing demand for experts with specialized knowledge. These specialists became solid middle-class professions where engineers, architects, chemists, accountants, and surveyors excelled. They established criteria for advanced training and certification and banded together in organizations to promote and defend their interests. Management of large public and private institutions became a profession. The number of independent shopkeepers, small business people, and white-collar employees grew. Despite being paid the same as other skilled workers, white-collar workers were strongly committed to the middle class and moving up in society. Elementary school teachers, nurses, and dentists climbed the social ladder and received respectable middle-class status and income. Food was big in the middle class, as city life stopped from 12:30 to 2:30 for husbands and schoolchildren to have lunch. Meat was big, as an average family might spend 10% of its earning on meat and 25% of its income on food and drink. Dinner parties were a favored social occasion. Having a full-time maid was a great sign that a family was better than the working classes. Many prosperous families rented their homes and lived in apartments where servants could live on the top floor. The variety of clothing had expanded and was cheaper due to factories, sewing machines, and department stores. Education became more expensive as advanced education became more in demand. The middle classes also had a shared code of expected behavior and morality that punished people for crimes, drunkenness, and gambling and praised sexual purity and fidelity.